European Exploration and Trade

There was at one time a period in our history, before mechanized maps and satellites and following projects. Mariners needed to control themselves by the stars and essential and off base maps. In the fifteenth and sixteenth hundreds of years in Europe there was headway in innovation and discovering that prompted boundless investigation and exchange among nations. The presentation of the compass, headways in cartography, the print machine, and different developments prompted expanded exchange and investigation all through Europe.Before the fifteenth century, mariners regularly didn’t adventure a long way from what they knew in light of the fact that maps were incredibly off base and climate was capricious. In the fourteenth century a style of maps, called portolon graphs, were presented. These were pictures of harbors, ports, urban communities, and coastlines recorded on sheepskin. These maps were significant to the shipper and merchants between urban communities, however to th e adventurer changing mainlands they were fundamentally pointless. The compass was additionally a significant improvement to past methods.Before this development, mariners utilized the stars to explore and remain on their to some degree arranged course. In any case, during the day they were at a misfortune. At the point when the compass was designed, it permitted mariners to know their bearing constantly. Individuals before long figured out how to notice and give more consideration to climate designs while cruising. They found the exchange twists among the oceans and noted where they were according to one another and what their consequences for transportation were. The breezes caused either a quicker and smoother trip or a more extended and harsher journey, contingent upon the heading of the boat and the breeze involved.This was a progression to past techniques since they presently comprehended what's in store and get ready for as opposed to speculating or being astonished. They cou ld likewise design courses and attempt new courses. This prompted a timeframe called the Age of Sail. The print machine was one of the greatest and most significant developments of this timespan. Previously, writing and records were scant and not normal. After the print machine was presented, abstract works and different sorts of reports were increasingly accessible to the regular individual. This urged individuals to turn out to be progressively taught in light of the fact that they presently had the way to do it.The print machine additionally affected cartography. Since maps must be either recorded or drawn, they were uncommon and not open. After the print machine, maps had the option to be copied and imparted to different cartographers. In doing this, they could contrast their maps and different people groups and make a more current and increasingly exact portrayal of the land and ocean. This made individuals become all the more sure and trusting of these maps, making them advent ure out farther than they had previously, subsequently expanding exchange. The structure and size of boats were additionally changing during this time.The Europeans started to fuse the techniques for different nations, for example, China, into their own shipbuilding procedure. One change was the different sails on the boat which took into consideration better upwind travel. The across the board rudder was additionally a significant improvement since it considered simpler and quicker guiding and better control and solidness of the bottom. All things considered, different changes and upgrades happened during this time. Innovations and upgrades, for example, map making, compasses, comprehension of climate designs, and the print machine were all variables in the expansion in investigation and exchange Europe.

Metaphor in Korean and Arab Culture Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

3 Steps to Acing Your Upcoming Group Interview You’ve been approached in for a board meet. Perhaps you’re threatened. Perhaps frightened. Possibly you’re not even sure you comprehend what that really involves. Whatever your degree of fear, here are three simple strides to traversing your board meet tranquilly and in one piece. Stage 1: BEFOREYou reserve the privilege to ask who will be on your board. Do this. At that point inquire about each board part as well as could be expected. You’ll have the option to make sense of a considerable amount and get ready better for what each may be generally quick to ask you. What does this specific gathering of individuals educate you regarding what the organization is attempting to assess?You can likewise ask to what extent (generally) the meeting should last. This will give you a nice sentiment for what amount to and fro conversation will be conceivable, how much space you’ll be given to pose inquiries, to what extent your answers can be, etc.Step 2: DURING Treat every individual on the board like an individual not simply one more anonymous face. This isn't an indifferent divider asking you inquiries. Every questioner on your board is another chance to make a human association and persuade that a lot more individuals in the organization what an extraordinary fit you would be.Be sure to observe everybody’s name as they are presented. Record every one if that causes you recall. When responding to questions, talk straightforwardly to the person who asked, yet then attempt to widen your answer out to cause the remainder of the board to feel remembered for the discussion.Step 3: AFTERYou’ve took in their names and put forth an attempt to interface with each board part presently thank every single one of them earnestly withâ solid eye to eye connection and a quality handshake. From that point forward, it’s the typical post-meet follow-up methodology. Be that as it may, recall that you have to keep in touch with one card to say thanks for each board part. It appears to be a torment, however it’s these little contacts that will help set you apart.The board talk with: 6 hints for previously, during, and after

Joan Didions Essay Los Angeles Notebook -- Didion Los Angeles Noteboo

Joan Didion's Essay Los Angeles Notebook      The Santa Ana winds cause individuals to act all the more savagely or raucous and makes others crabby and despondent as it were. Joan Didion discloses to the peruser about how the Santa Ana influences human conduct in her exposition â€Å"Los Angeles Notebook.† Through the utilization of symbolism, style, and choice of detail Didion communicates her perspective on the Santa Ana winds.      Didion paints uncomfortable and serious pictures while depicting the Santa Ana winds. â€Å"There is something uncomfortable in the Los Angeles air†¦ some unnatural quietness, some tension,† beginnings the exposition off with the picture of Los Angeles individuals it might be said of tranquility or tense. She further includes, â€Å"Blowing up dust storms out along Route 66†¦ we will see smoke back in the gorge, and hear alarms in the night,† engendering the uncomfortable and unmistakable picture of Los Angeles. â€Å"The child worries. The house cleaner sulks,† she includes, giving a discouraging perspective into the impacts of the Santa Ana twists on individuals. Didion, trying to show the absurdity related with the Santa Ana twists, calls attention to the Indians who dedicate themselves completely to the ocean when awful breezes came. At any rate, Didion endeavors to show the negative impacts of the Santa Ana twists through pictures of tranquility, anxiety, and temperance.      In her tone, Didion stays clear, predictable, and striking. Her selection of words stays basic as though to not distance the perusers of her exposition. Her tone for the principal half of the opening, essentially the first and second ...

The Diversity of Over- and Under- Compounds

The Diversity of Over-and Under-Compounds The Diversity of Over-and Under-Compounds The Diversity of Over-and Under-Compounds By Mark Nichol Getting comfortable (or progressively acquainted) with words starting with over and under must incorporate considering that these mixes can be both strict and allegorical (or just non-literal yet once in a while just exacting) and can fill in as different grammatical features. This post talks about certain models. Over the edge has a strict significance, alluding to a person or thing falling or being tossed from a boat or pontoon. (Board insinuates the wooden deck of a boat.) However, it likewise has the metaphorical feeling of disposing of a thought as though it were being tossed from a boat and of inordinate energy; commenting that somebody has gone over the edge suggests that the individual isn't on the firm balance of the real world or reasonableness. Comparative, oust can be exacting, as while portraying a competitor tossing a ball excessively far, making a colleague be not able to get it, just as non-literal, likewise with the feeling of â€Å"defeat,† â€Å"depose,† or â€Å"upset.† Overhead initially implied, actually, what was above one’s head, yet it likewise fills in as a thing with a few implications: It can allude to a stroke that a player in a round of tennis or a comparative game makes over their head, to a roof in a marine vessel, or to essential costs of doing business that don't fall under the financial plan for a particular task. Additional time is the additional time after the managed time of play in an opposition (as to furnish hopefuls with the chance to break a tie) or the standard workday or week's worth of work (or, by augmentation, the compensation for extra time spent working), however it can likewise allude, all the more calmly, to when members in a venture work additional hours to finish it. Numerous words starting with over-,, for example, disregard (which can mean both â€Å"provide a view from above† and â€Å"fail to see†) and surpass (â€Å"catch up to and pass†) are action words, and some where over is the second component of the compound are things changed from action word phrases, including handover (â€Å"transfer†) â€Å"and takeover (â€Å"forced or in any case unfriendly exchange of power†). In like manner, words starting with under serve different linguistic capacities. Underhand is a modifier alluding to an activity attempted to stay away from identification or to a movement made with the hand climbing from underneath the shoulder (and naughty methods â€Å"deceitful†), and as a qualifier, it implies â€Å"secretly† or â€Å"with an underhand motion.† Underline and underscore both signify a line embedded underneath at least one words to stress them yet additionally fill in as action words with that exacting significance and with the allegorical feeling of accentuation. Comprehend is an anomaly, in that it has just a metaphorical importance; one doesn't utilize the word to allude to presenting underneath something. (The Old English word for that activity is undergestandan.) The sense is of standing near or amidst something and along these lines being comfortable with it, albeit under may stem not from the Old English relational word under yet from the homonym identified with the Latin word bury, which means â€Å"between† (however the homonyms might be legitimately related). What's more, however black market once alluded to Hades (just as, every so often, the earth, as being situated underneath paradise), it came to allude to the most minimal level in the social stepping stool and, by expansion, the metaphorical group of lawbreakers, particularly those in sorted out wrongdoing. Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin getting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the Spelling class, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:25 Subordinating ConjunctionsThat versus WhichGrammar Review #1: Particles and Phrasal Verbs

Humanities Baroque Essay

Sensational strict canvases were being made Literature was being written such that it will be essential. The King James adaptation of the Bible impactsly affected human expressions. It was done in 1611 and was viewed as the most significant change in English writing and printing (Ryken). It was set to change the whole English language and keep the passionate impact. â€Å"The new interpretation of Scripture saved the otherworldly enthusiasm of the Old Testament Hebrew and the account energy of the New Testament Greek† (Fiero 62). The King James Version was a major piece of the Baroque time frame since it was a bit of writing that had uplifted enthusiastic words and could really be seen effectively by the peruser. In Baroque fine art, watchers can envision the enthusiastic effect the artistic creation has. Everything is in real life and the work of art resembles shot in what’s going on. In Caravaggio’s The Crucifixion of Saint Peter, everything is painted right in the center of the execution. Holy person Peter isn't up yet highly involved with arriving. The work of art is actuated and has complex developments. Gravity has an extremely amazing draw in this image also. Watchers can see the feeling in Saint Peter’s face that he is frightened however courageous. Caravaggio tried to recount to a story in this work of art with feeling since you see a poor, blameless, and destitute looking man being killed. Everything from the guy’s filthy feet and base who lifting up Saint Peter is essentially standing out to the viewer’s face. The three men don't appear there face as they kill Saint Peter and it adds secret with respect to who might do such a demonstration. Everything from the nails in Saint Peter’s hands to the soil on their feet is genuine and clear. Light is accentuated in this painting also in view of the dark foundation. The Baroque time frame and its work of art gave out genuine feeling while the activity is occurring. All the strain in one work of art is tossed into the viewers’ faces (Fiero). Music in the Baroque time frame encircle itself with mood, tune, terraced elements, surface, and basses. Authors would communicate feelings and love in their music and split away from the Medieval occasions by utilizing vocal and instrumental music. A renowned author in the Baroque time frame was Johann Sebastian Bach. He used to basically church music however then built up an increasingly melodic potential for the concerto structure. The best made melody in his profession was known as The Art of Fugue. â€Å"A fugue is a polyphonic creation where a solitary melodic topic is repeated in consecutive phrases† (Fiero). Florid music got feelings and even audience members who don’t even comprehend the brightness organization of Bach, can grow an affection for his music simply tuning in to it. The Baroque time frame got feeling to everything like writing, canvases, and music. It perpetually changed writing and the English language for individuals to comprehend it better and can be moved by the words in content rather than simply understanding it.

Why You Should Apply For College Essay Samples

Why You Should Apply For College Essay SamplesPrinceton is a very prestigious university and one of the finest universities in the country. In the past many students would apply to Princeton, but now they are always amazed at how far they can go if they are able to get scholarships to Princeton. A scholarship will allow them to attend a great university and achieve success.If you would like to apply for a scholarship then there are many essay samples to choose from. Each university has its own different set of criteria when it comes to determining which student will be eligible to receive a scholarship. You must try to find the college that fits your personality, financial situation, and academic records.There are certain types of scholarships that you may be able to qualify for, depending on what the school requires for financial need. However, it is important to find out which schools are capable of helping you to go to college. Many of these schools are unable to admit the most ta lented students, so it is essential to take advantage of every opportunity that is offered to you. Just make sure you keep your grades up to the standards that they demand.If you are one of the many talented students who have been unable to get into Princeton, then you may want to take advantage of their various scholarships. There are many scholarships available for talented students and there are plenty of scholarships that are awarded on the basis of the performance of the applicant. There are many other factors that are considered by these universities and this includes the academic performance of the applicant, as well as their personal attributes and achievements.Another thing that is considered in determining the scholarships that will be awarded is the ability to speak English proficiently. Of course, this requirement is not always a prerequisite, but it is highly recommended. So, if you are one of the many students who have tried to learn English, you should not give up as it is very possible to get a scholarship. Being proficient in English is also beneficial, especially if you are hoping to get into a specific major or have an English as a second language. In fact, there are many benefits to being proficient in English, such as improving your chances of securing a job if you plan to be employed in a company with an English speaking workforce. As you can see, English is a great tool that will allow you to obtain success in life.In conclusion, you should always take advantage of these essay samples. They are always available online and can help you to get the education that you need. You should think about your personal requirements, your financial situation, and your academic history before applying to these universities.

Financial Statement Fraud Schemes - 825 Words

Financial Statement Fraud Schemes (Other (Not Listed) Sample) Content: Financial Statement Fraud SchemesStudent:Professor:Course title:Date:Financial Statement Fraud SchemesFinancial statement fraud schemes in most cases involve the understatement of expenses and liabilities and overstatement of revenues and assets. This way, the fiscal statements would reflect an income statement and balance sheet that show the business being fiscally healthier than it actually is. With time, if continuously committed but not detected or rectified, this artificial net work will begin eroding the liquidity, solvency, and eventually the very existence of the firm (Louwers et al., 2011). Potential financial statement fraud schemesThe possible financial statements fraud schemes are as follows: (1) improper or fictitious revenue recognition a common scheme that fraudsters utilize in financial statement fraud entails manipulating revenue figures. This occurs when revenue that has not yet been earned is recorded (Moyo, 2012). It commonly involves fictitious i nvoices. Schemes for manipulating figures of revenue usually involve posting sales before they are made or before payment is made. Some of the examples are recording shipments to company-owned facilities as sales, pre-billing for future sales, re-invoicing past due accounts in order to improve the age of receivables, and duplicate billings (Louwers et al., 2011). (2) Overstating assets and improper asset valuations: overstatement of the companys current assets on fiscal statements and failing to record depreciation expenditures can also be used at Apollo Shoes as methods of fraud. In addition, the managers can also overstate accounts receivables and inventory for the purpose of inflating assets of the company on fraudulent statements (Moyo, 2012). (3) Manipulation of expenses: intentional manipulation of expenditures is also a potential fraud involving financial statements at Apollo Shoes. Capitalizing normal operating expenses is an instance of manipulating expenses. This scheme is an improper way of delaying recognition of expenditures and artificially raising income figures. Manipulation and concealment of liabilities frauds comprise failure to record accounts payables or failure to report regular expenditures on fiscal statements. Writing off funds lent to managers and executives, and keeping certain liabilities are potential common methods of fraud at Apollo Shoes (Louwers et al., 2011). (4) Inadequate or improper disclosures: disclosure frauds are typically based upon misrepresenting the firm and making untrue representations in press releases and other filings of the company. Some disclosures could be intentionally obscuring or confusing and it might be difficult to completely comprehend them. Improper disclosures can occur when one makes statements that are actually false in the commentary sections of reports (Moyo, 2012). Types of evidenceThe various types of evidence to look for in determining whether financial statement fraud is actually occurring a t Apollo Shoes include the following: (1) fictitious invoices and fictitious sales: the fraudster may deliberately post sales before the sales have occurred thereby recognizing revenue improperly. (2) Fictitious inventory: the fraudster may inflate the quantity of inventory or inflate the value of the inventory. There could also be improper or fraudulent inventory capitalization. Looking for fictitious inventory will help to determine whether asset overstatement schemes are taking place (Moyo, 2012). (3) Fictitious receivables: looking for fictitious receivables will help to determine if the value of receivables is being artificially inflated. (4) False representations of the company in press releases and in other filings of the company can also be used as evidence. Other types of evidence include fictitious equipment; improperly calculated depreciation expense and which has been charged to the project costs; inventory that has been improperly capitalized; and failure to write-off b ad debts (Moyo, 2012). Substantive procedures will be used to analyze potential fraud schemesTo analyze potential financial statement fraud schemes, substantive procedures will be used as illustrated in the table below:Potential fraud schemesSubstantive procedureDescription 1Accounts receivables schemes Accounts receivable processThe auditor will pull a sample of customers/clients from the accounts receivables ledger of Apollo and then review the original information that led to the current balance. Reviewing the original sales, the auditor will establish that a sale on account happened, leading t...

Formation of the Delian League in Ancient History

Several Ionian cities joined together in the Delian League  for mutual protection against the Persians. They placed Athens at the head (as hegemon) because of her naval supremacy. This free confederation (symmachia) of autonomous cities, founded in 478 B.C., consisted of representatives, an admiral, and treasurers appointed by Athens. It was called the Delian League because its treasury was located at  Delos. History Formed in 478 B.C., the Delian League was an alliance of mainly coastal and Aegean city-states against Persia at a time when Greece feared Persia might attack again. Its goal was to make Persia pay and to free the Greeks under Persian dominion. The league morphed into the Athenian Empire that opposed the Spartan allies in the Peloponnesian War. After the Persian Wars, which included Xerxes invasion by land at the Battle of Thermopylae (the setting for the graphic novel-based movie ), the various Hellenic poleis (city-states) divided into opposing sides ranged around Athens and Sparta, and fought the Peloponnesian War. This enervating war was a major turning point in Greek history since in the following century, the city-states were no longer strong enough to stand up to the Macedonians under Philip and his son Alexander the Great. These Macedonians adopted one of the aims of the Delian League: to make Persia pay. Strength is what the poleis had been seeking when they turned to Athens to form the Delian League. Mutual Protection Following Hellenic victory at the Battle of Salamis, during the Persian Wars, Ionian cities joined together in the Delian League for mutual protection. The league was meant to be offensive as well as defensive: to have the same friends and enemies (typical terms for an alliance formed for this dual purpose [Larsen]), with secession forbidden. The member poleis placed Athens at the head (hegemon) because of her naval supremacy. Many of the Greek cities were annoyed with the tyrannical behavior of the Spartan commander Pausanias, who had been leader of the Greeks during the Persian War. Thucydides Book 1.96 on the formation of the Delian League 96. When the Athenians had thus gotten the command by the confederates own accord for the hatred they bare to Pausanias, they then set down an order which cities should contribute money for this war against the barbarians, and which galleys. For they pretended to repair the injuries they had suffered by laying waste the territories of the king. [2] And then first came up amongst the Athenians the office of treasurers of Greece, who were receivers of the tribute, for so they called this money contributed. And the first tribute that was taxed came to four hundred and sixty talents. The treasury was at Delos, and their meetings were kept there in the temple. Members of the Delian League In The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (1989), author-historian Donald Kagan says the members included about 20 members from the Greek islands, 36 Ionian city-states, 35 from the Hellespont, 24 from around Caria, and 33 from around Thrace, making it primarily an organization of the Aegean islands and coast. This free confederation (symmachia) of autonomous cities, consisted of representatives, an admiral, and financial officers/treasurers (hellenotamiai) appointed by Athens. It was called the Delian League because its treasury was located at Delos. An Athenian leader, Aristides, initially assessed the allies in the Delian League 460 talents, probably annually [Rhodes] (there is some question about the amount and people assessed [Larsen]), to be paid to the treasury, either in cash or warships (triremes). This assessment is referred to as phoros that which is brought or tribute. 23.5 Hence it was Aristeides who assessed the tributes of the allied states on the first occasion, two years after the naval battle of Salamis, in the archonship of Timosthenes, and who administered the oaths to the Ionians when they swore to have the same enemies and friends, ratifying their oaths by letting the lumps of iron sink to the bottom out at sea. — Aristotle Ath. Pol. 23.5 Athenian Supremacy For 10 years, the Delian League fought to rid Thrace and the Aegean of Persian strongholds and piracy. Athens, which continued to demand financial contributions or ships from its allies, even when fighting was no longer necessary, became more and more powerful as her allies became poorer and weaker. In 454, the treasury was moved to Athens. Animosity developed, but Athens would not permit the formerly free cities to secede. The enemies of Pericles were crying out how that the commonwealth of Athens had lost its reputation and was ill-spoken of abroad for removing the common treasure of the Greeks from the isle of Delos into their own custody; and how that their fairest excuse for so doing, namely, that they took it away for fear the barbarians should seize it, and on purpose to secure it in a safe place, this Pericles had made unavailable, and how that Greece cannot but resent it as an insufferable affront, and consider herself to be tyrannized over openly, when she sees the treasure, which was contributed by her upon a necessity for the war, wantonly lavished out by us upon our city, to gild her all over, and to adorn and set her forth, as it were some vain woman, hung round with precious stones and figures and temples, which cost a world of money. Pericles, on the other hand, informed the people, that they were in no way obliged to give any account of those moneys to their allies, so long as they maintained their defense, and kept off the barbarians from attacking them. — Plutarchs Life of Pericles The Peace of Callias, in 449, between Athens and Persia, put an end to the rationale for the Delian League, since there should have been peace, but Athens by then had a taste for power and the Persians started supporting the Spartans to Athens detriment [Flower]. End of the Delian League The Delian League was broken up when Sparta captured Athens in 404. This was a terrible time for many in Athens. The victors razed the great walls linking the city to her harbor city of Piraeus; Athens lose her colonies, and most of her navy, and then submitted to the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. An Athenian league was later revived in 378-7 to protect against Spartan aggression and survived until Philip II of Macedons victory at Chaeronea (in Boeotia, where Plutarch would later be born). Terms to Know hegemonia leadership.Hellenic Greek.Hellenotamiai treasurers, Athenian financial officers.Peloponnesian League modern term for the military alliance of the Lacedaemonians and their allies.symmachia a treaty where the signers agree to fight for one another. Sources Starr, Chester G. A History of the Ancient World. Oxford University Press, 1991.Kagan, Donald. The Outbreak of the Peloponnesian War. Cornell University Press, 2013.Holden, Hubert Ashton, Plutarchs Life of Perciles, Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers, 1895.Lewis, David Malcolm. The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 5: The Fifth Century BC., Boardman, John, Davies, J.K., Ostwald, M., Cambridge University Press, 1992.Larsen, J. A. O. â€Å"The Constitution and Original Purpose of the Delian League.† Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. 51, 1940, p. 175.Sabin, Philip, International Relations in Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome, Hall, Jonathan M., Van Wees, Hans, Whitby, Michael, Cambridge University Press, 2007.Flower, Michael A. From Simonides to Isocrates: The Fifth-Century Origins of Fourth-Century Panhellenism, Classical Antiquity, Vol. 19, No. 1 (Apr. 2000), pp. 65-101.

Language Paper - 1243 Words

Language Paper PSY 360 Language Paper Language is something that generally every human has as a form of communication. It can be in the form of verbal words, in the form of written words, or even in the form of signed words, but it is something that as humans we all use in one way or another. The need for language evolved as a way for people to express their thoughts, their feelings and emotions, and even their fears. Humans needed a way to communicate with each other to express things that normally couldn’t be expressed. This paper is going to set out to cover language. It will cover the definition of language and lexicon, as well as evaluate the key features of language. The paper with describe the four levels of the†¦show more content†¦The properties include communicative, arbitrary, structured, generative, and dynamic. The first property, communicative, is a property because as it describes it permits one person to communicate with another person. Next in the properties is arbi trary, which is the fact that the relationship between language’s elements and their meaning is arbitrary. When it comes to symbols, arbitrariness is one of the key features. A sound can stand for a meaning, but as to which sound stands for which meaning is considered arbitrary (Willingham, 2007). While language is arbitrary, it is at the same time structured as well. Basically meaning the pattern of symbols is not arbitrary at all. Next is the fact that language is also generative. The basic units of language such as words can be used to build any number of meanings. Finally, language is dynamic because it is not just static. According to Willingham, language is changing constantly as new words are added and the rules of grammar slowly and subtly change (2007). Language Processing in Cognitive Psychology Language is a remarkable process when it is looked at on a cognitive level. As far as language is concerned, humans are the only being on earth that posses the ability to be able to communicate through language. When it comes to a person’s basic needs and desires a person has only to communicate them through words for them to be met. Another interesting fact is thatShow MoreRelatedLanguage and Memory Paper1329 Words   |  6 PagesLanguage and Memory Paper Donnell M. Thomas University of Phoenix PSYCH 560/ Cognitive Psychology Dr. Kristi Collins-Johns 15th August 2010 Language and Memory Paper Introduction Language is important to the way we communicate. Semantic memory is acquired over the years and is vital to language. Language becomes second nature when we already know what, when and how to say something. We form sentences, phrases, paragraphs by planning what we say and how we will say it. 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Causes of Sleep Deprivation in Western Cultures - 582 Words

In Western cultures, the biggest cause of sleep deprivation is stress mostly as a result of being sick, overworking and shift working, drugs, or examinations (Pinel, 2014). Sleep loss can lead to impairment in decision-making. Two studies have been conducted that look at twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation and focus on the effect it has on making complex decisions. Essentially, what is the effect of total sleep deprivation in decision-making? In 2009, David Schyner and his colleagues had the opportunity to subject fifteen participants to a total of twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation. They set up their experiment by asking participants to make a decision between two choices and then again between three choices. After a day of sleep loss, researchers found that participants showed a decreased ability to make integrative decisions between two choices, and the three choice tasks were significantly harder to make more so than the two choice task. And MRI of the participants showed an overall decrease in five regions of the brain versus a full night’s rest in terms of task-specific activity. Affected brain areas were the superior parietal lobe, which functions in spatial orientation; the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus, which, respectively, function in self-awareness in coordination with senses and processing higher information; the orbital frontal, the cognitive aspect of processing decision-making; and the inferior and medial polar frontal, whichShow MoreRelatedThe Causes of Sleep Deprivation1096 Words   |  4 PagesIn Western cultures, the biggest cause of sleep deprivation is stress mostly as a result of being sick, overworking and shift working, drugs, or examinations (Pinel, 2014). Sleep loss can lead to impairment in decision-making. Two studies have been conducted that look at twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation and focus on the effect it has on making complex decisions. Essentially, what is the effect of total sleep dep rivation in decision-making? In 2009, David Schyner and his colleagues had theRead MoreLiterature Research and Essay: Sleep Deprivation and Cardiovascular Disease4518 Words   |  18 PagesWhat is the recent evidence that links sleep deprivation with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease? Introduction Recently, many epidemiology studies were conducted to find out the effect of sleep deprivation on the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Sleep deprivation is a concern for the working population especially the shift-workers. If sleep deprivation leads to cardiovascular diseases, they are at higher risk of suffering cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension, myocardial infarctionRead MoreSleep Deprivation Essay3848 Words   |  16 PagesAbstract Sleep is one of our basic needs to survive, however in the modern days sleep deprivation in increasing more and more each day, causing accidents and medical problems for the people and the community. This essay will look at the meaning of sleep and sleep deprivation and the basic perspectives on what motivates sleep and sleep deprivation with the five perspectives; evolutionary, psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive and the hierarchy of needs. This essay will also evaluate the best perspectiveRead MoreMajor Risk Factors for the Development of Anorexia Nervosa1280 Words   |  6 Pagesdisorder themselves than those with no family history of the disease. This is due to a hereditary gene which is linked to abnormalities with the neurotransmitter chemical, Serotonin (Source, 2003). This chemical is an active participant in the control of sleep, memory, learning, mood, body temperature, muscle contraction, cardiovascular and appetite. People who suffer from abnormalities relating to t his neurotransmitter have an increased chance of developing high levels of serotonin. High levels of serotoninRead MoreEffects Of Deprivation On The Human Body1974 Words   |  8 PagesDeprivation of sleep has been linked to a variety of health issues from type II diabetes, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases, to mental health issues such as depression (Porkka-Heiskanen, Zitting Wigren, 2013). The busy lifestyles of Western culture in the 21st century have increasingly deprived individuals of sleep. This could potentially be a contributing reason that there has been an increase of obesity in cultures such as that of the United States. But what makes humans sleep? Why, as a speciesRead MoreHuman Relationships With Considerations Of The Implications For Attachment Theory1594 Words   |  7 PagesDiscussion: The role of culture in human relationships with considerations of the implications for attachment theory. Bowbly (1959) explains the child’s emotional regulation and attachment to the primary caretaker, as a result of the caretaker’s continues responsiveness and a strategy of the child to keep the primary caretaker close to ensure survival during evolutionary times. It adapts to fit into the appropriate evolutionary niche. This internal working model creates the four main types of attachment:Read MoreThe Impact Of Technology On Human And Animal Life1067 Words   |  5 Pagestechnology has setbacks. Though it has increased the speed of task performance, it has also equally harmed the society, and its considerable development has changed the way of life in different ways. In this paper, I am going to analyze the various causes and respective effects of the use of technology. In the quest of advancing this, the research paper shall draw from various current challenges that care attributed to technological advancement. It is true that technology advancement plays a significantRead MoreHolistic Medicine Essay1592 Words   |  7 PagesMy topic is about how holistic medicine is used. I became interested in this topic because all I knew about medicine was the modern western practices. As an occupation when I am older I would like to go into the medical field. This influenced me to want learn about what other medical treatments were used and then I learn what holistic medicine is. All I know about holistic medicine is that it is an alternative form of healing and incorporates the entire person. Also, I know that there are manyRead MoreAnimal Farm, By George Orwell2096 Words   |  9 Pagesrights. Some people have described human rights as a ‘gift of the West to the Rest’. In this essay I will look at both aspects of this theory, to figure out whether human rights really do exist in full flow in the non-Western countries, and whether human rights have been violated in Western countrie s themselves. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the plot of the book is worked around one quote†¦ â€Å"all animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.† (Orwell, 1954). I believe that this quoteRead MoreFamily Health Assessment Essay2265 Words   |  10 Pagesthe healthy choices and ensure that every family member follows them. In a diverse family set up health promotion and prevention of disease takes place. These health choices and behaviors are influenced by the family’s values, beliefs, priorities, cultures and practices. Utilizing family-focused approach is a high priority, while providing appropriate family health care and support. Gordon’s 11 functional health patterns play a vital role in elaborating the various types of health patterns associated

Stages of Ego Development

Question: Describe and define the Stages of Ego Development. Answer: Jane Lovenger developed the stages of ego development and defined ego as an attribute that evolved as a continuous process because of interaction between the inner self and the social environment. Altbach et al., (2014) mentioned that ego development is quite similar to moral development but is wider in scope. The ego development consists of nine stages, which are as follows: Pre-social- Jane loevinger believed that it is not possible for babies to develop ego, since their thinking is delusional or autistic. Thus, their ego is thinking consist of brief and hazy projection of events. Impulsive- This is the second stage where the child develops senses and reacts accordingly to outside events. Here, the individual is self-observant and only is immersed in environmental aspects that influences them. Self Protective - In this stage, the individual develops feelings of self-protection and preserves against outside elements. Conformist - Children going to school tries to measure themselves and others as per the established codes of the society. As such, this is a period of struggle as children strive hard to match social expectations. Self Awareness - Until the age of twenty-five, the period of self-awareness remains in a human being. Thus, there is an increase in level of self- awareness, and high imagination power to adjust to various situations. Conscientious - This is a more advanced stage of an individual, where the person reacts immediately to any changes in the external environment (Jespersen et al., 2013). The conscientious stage is responds positively towards achievement of goals and objectives. Individualistic - The characteristic feature of this stage is the respect towards individual as well as interpersonal relationship. Besides this, the sense of tolerance and acceptance towards people from different backgrounds and culture increases. Autonomous - This is a very mature stage, which refers to being free from materialistic wants and desires. Integrated - As per Loevinger, this stage is very difficult to attain. As such, at the integrated stage, continuous learning is mandatory for mental and emotional development in an individual. References Altbach, P. G., Arnold, K., King, I. C. (2014).College student development and academic life: Psychological, intellectual, social and moral issues. Routledge. Jespersen, K., Kroger, J., Martinussen, M. (2013). Identity status and ego development: A meta-analysis.Identity,13(3), 228-241.

Historical Roots of Populism free essay sample

The tariff on manufactured goods, the domestic marketing system, and the shortage of credit were all contributing actors to the devastating downward swing in the business cycle. The debt Of postmortem farmers in the south occurred because of the credit exploitation of northern merchant stores and high freight rates charged by the Railroads. This triggered a new outburst of farm radicalism. The Farmers Alliance was established in Lamps, Texas in 1877 to try and improve their economic situation.The alliance was designed to promote higher commodity prices through collective action by groups of farmers. The farmers developed co- ops to help each other out. The Farmers Alliance spread throughout the Midwest and South. Despite their efforts to market crops cooperatively at fair prices they discovered problems in the American financial and monetary system. They became aware that the furnishing man was holding them down. They wanted a sub treasury in order to get loans from the government instead of the furnishing man. We will write a custom essay sample on Historical Roots of Populism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They also had a plan that would permit farmers to keep nonperishable crops when the prices were low and receive a loan from the government in which they would repay when the market prices rose and they sold the crops they had in storage. The Farmers Alliance held their first formal convention in Celebrate, Texas in 886 and made the Celebrate demands. They demanded that the government regulate commerce and create a bureau of labor statistics. They also urged the election on U. S. Senators by popular vote. Soon after in 1892 the Peoples Party was organized in SST. Louis by farm leaders, representative of the Knights of Labor, and various professional reformers. It flourished particularly among western farmers, based largely on its opposition to the gold standard. In the election of 1892 this new party elected numbers of local officials in western states and cast over a million votes for General Weaver as the third party. In 1896, the party joined together and supported Bryan but they lost again and populism began to evaporate over the next few years.The Populist Party was a short-lived political party in the U. S. And was not a success at the time of its movement However, it was eventually successful over the years to come. Many of its positions have become adopted over the course of the following decades. For example, currency was regulated, the government began to tax, schools became more developed and regulated, and the direct election of Senators was amended to the Constitution. I think that indicates success!

Jackie Robinson Research Project free essay sample

Americans. Early life experiences lead Jackie to make a difference in civil rights. During his college years Jackie took an interest in sports. Robinson became an outstanding all-around athlete at Pasadena Junior College and the University of California, Los Angels (CALL). He excelled in football, basketball, and track as well as baseball (Jackie Robinson). In college Jackie earned four varsity letters. By doing so he proved that African Americans could be successful and achieve great things. Also, this experience was the foundation of Jackasss sports career.After dropping out of college Jackie decided to join the U. S. Army. He knew Robinson and black boxer Joe Louis had challenged the militarys rules against allowing black enlisted men to become officers, and Jackie had become a second lieutenant (West). This is the first time Jackie took interest in civil rights. He stood up for what he believed in and in doing so gained the right to become an officer in the army. We will write a custom essay sample on Jackie Robinson Research Project or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page While still in the U. S. Army Jackie again stood up for what he believed in. Robinson faced court- martial in 1944 for refusing to follow an order that he sit at the back of a laity bus (Jackie Robinson).This is another incident that indicated Jackie would actively take part in civil rights. Once again he stood up for himself and African Americans knowing what the consequences would be for disobeying an order. Jackasss early life indicated he would make a difference in civil rights. Jackie Robinsons career in baseball hugely impacted racial segregation. Jackie was playing baseball for the Royals and his impressive season got him promoted to the Dodgers. His debut game on April 15, 1 947, marked the first time an African-American athlete played in the major leagues (About JackieRobinson). Jackie was taking a significant Step in his life. By being on the team he had to withstand racial comments and not respond to them in a violent manner. Jackie proved to people that African Americans could be just as good at something as white people and that they are strong and will undergo anything to have civil rights. Jackie began playing for the Dodgers and showed he was more than the average player. Leading the National ague in stolen bases, he was chosen Rookie of the Year. In 1949 he won the batting championship with a . 42 average and was voted the leagues Most Valuable player (MAP) (Jackie Robinson). Jackie Robinson towered over other players. His talent was astounding and exceeded that of others. He didnt just settle for being the first African American to play in the major leagues, but instead he became one of the best baseball players of the year. He affirmed that African Americans should not be denied rights and that they can associate and be a component of the white society. During his career Jackie made a collection of friends. In one incident, while fans harassed Robinson from the stands, Reese walked over and put his arm around his matter, a gesture that has become legendary in baseball history (About Jackie Robinson). Jackie surprisingly made quite a few friends all of which were white. All of these friends supported Jackie and stood up for him when fans would harass him. This goes to show that African Americans and white people could get along just fine and work together, and that they didnt need to be separated in society. Jackie Robinson strongly influenced segregation through his baseball career. After his career in baseball Jackie Robinson continued to contest racial segregation. Jackie led a virtuous career in sports until it was time he quit. After retiring from baseball early in 1957, Robinson engaged in business and in civil rights activism (Jackie Robinson). Once his sports career stopped Jackie kept on go Eng. He continued fighting for African American rights so future generations would not have to live in a segregated country. Jackie continued to take part in civil rights. He was a spokesperson for the National Association for the Advancement Of Colored people (NAACP) and made appearances with Martin Luther King, Jar. Jackie Robinson). The NAACP is the largest civil rights organization. Jackie spoke on behalf of the people in the organization and represented them. Martin Luther King was one of the most prominent leaders of civil rights and Jackie worked with him to get equal rights for African Americans and generations to come. Jackie continued to be honored in baseball after his career. Was the first African-American to be inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1 962 (About Jackie Robinson). Being inducted into the hall of fame is one of the greatest honors in baseball. Jackie Robinson was recognized as one of the best players of the time, which proves that the bias of African Americans was false and that they could out talent white people, and achieve great things. Even after his baseball career Jackie found ways to be apart of civil rights activism. Jackie Robinson led a successful career during his lifetime. Not only was he the first African American major league baseball player, but also he was a major civil rights activist. He challenged the idea of racial segregation and was one of the most influential people in abolishing segregation.

How Islam Can Help Smokers Quit

How Islam Can Help Smokers Quit One of the dangers of tobacco is that it is so addicting. It causes a physical response in your body when you try to give it up. Therefore, quitting is often difficult. However, some people may find that with the help of Allah and the personal commitment to improving yourself for the sake of Allah, and for your own health, it is possible. Niyyah - Make Your Intention It is first recommended to make the firm intention, from deep in your heart, to give up this evil habit. Trust in Allahs words: ...When you have taken a decision, put your trust in Allah. For Allah loves those who put their trust in Him. If Allah helps you, none can overcome you; if He forsakes you, who is it - after that - that can help you? In Allah, then, let believers put their trust (Quran 3:159-160). Change Your Habits Secondly, you must avoid situations where you are used to smoking and people who do so around you. For example, if you have certain friends who gather together to smoke, make a choice to stay away from that environment for the time being. At a vulnerable stage, it is too easy to relapse by having just one. Remember, tobacco causes a physical addiction and you must stay away completely. Find Alternatives Thirdly, drink a lot of water and keep yourself busy in other endeavors. Spend time in the mosque. Play sports. Pray. Spend time with your family and non-smoking friends. And remember the words of Allah: And those who strive hard in Our Cause, We will certainly guide them to Our Paths, for verily Allah is with those who do right† (Quran 29:69). If You Live With a Smoker If you live with or are friends with smokers, first of all, encourage them to quit, for the sake of Allah, their health, and their deen. Share with them the information here, and offer support through the difficult process of quitting. Remember that we will each face Allah alone, however, and we are responsible for our own choices. If they refuse to quit, you have the right to protect your own health and the health of your family. Do not allow it in the house. Do not allow it in enclosed quarters with your family. If the smoker is a parent or other elder, we should not neglect to take care of our health out of respect. The Quran is clear that we are not to obey our parents in things which are forbidden by Allah. Gently, but firmly, advise them of the reasons for your own choices.

Andy Warhol and His work on the Contemporary Art Essay Example for Free

Andy Warhol and His work on the Contemporary Art Essay Andy Warhol (1928-1987) of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, less commonly known as Andrew Warhola, was a central figure in the pop art category. He is an American artist who reigned around the world as a painter, author, avant-garde filmmaker and as a public personage for his connection to many people of different fields of work and status. Warhol studied in Carnegie Institute of Technology (now known as the Carnegie Mellon University) to hone his artistry (www. artgallery. com, 2008). Warhol unify his works through the Keatonesque style which is aritistically and personally affectless. In his work s a Pop artist, conceptual aspects were always there as a key factor. His art was known for its irony, in most of its sense. Campbell’s soup cans was probably his most famous work. The mundane images he made were turned to the so-called ironic art through enlargement, hand-painting or silk-screening. He always mentioned that the idea of his work is always at the surface of his work, obvious, apparent. Other attributes of his work were slight color changes using ink spots (www. pbs. org, 2007). His work reveals contemporary art in such a way it concerns some human desires that never ceases to revolve around. He even made his film where he was an international celebrity and a pop artist. His experiences with many people brought him the ideas of what is contemporary, and made sure that no traces of the artists can be recognized from his artwork. Andy Warhol and His work on the Contemporary Art. (2017, Feb 14). We have essays on the following topics that may be of interest to you

Effects of package warnings on the demand of tobacco Thesis Proposal

Effects of package warnings on the demand of tobacco - Thesis Proposal Example the costs to society are directly linked to the number of individuals that smoke, broad based movements towards decreasing smoking and seeking to break nicotine and/or tobacco dependence have been sought after. Necessarily, these stake holders have come to recognize that decreasing the demand for tobacco products has a direct level of impact on the negative effects that tobacco can cause within society as a whole. Not surprisingly, one the ways to decrease smoking and tobacco usage has been to utilize especially horrific warnings and direct representations of harm that such behavior can cause; invariably on the product itself. Ultimately, the research that has thus far been conducted, within such articles as â€Å"Liability of Cigarette Manufacturers for Lung Cancer: An Analysis of the Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act†, has indicated that these warning labels have not had the desired effect with respect to decreasing smoking and tobacco usage (Thornton, 2007). As a function of seeking to understand this topic to a more full and complete degree, the following research will be concentric upon researching two groups, a control and a test group. The control will of course not be influenced by warnings and packaging as a function of tobacco legislation or government intrusion into consumer markets. However, the test group will have been exposed to such warnings and the researcher will seek to draw inference based upon how these groups score with respect to the overall rates of quitting tobacco products that they exhibit (Green, 2006). Ultimately, a noted difficulty within such a methodology is consistent with the fact that the test group and the control group will not be drawn from the same society or even nationality; due to the fact that legislative requirements for cigarette labeling and warnings do not exist in certain places of the globe. However, the alternative to such a research design would be to reach back in history and seek to meas ure

The Gullah community in American slave history Essay

The Gullah community in American slave history - Essay Example it can be said that the US slave trade is seen as one of the most infamous and unjust acts of forceful displacement. Such acts not only deprived the victims from living a life of peace and contentment in their own homeland, but also resulted in a loss of the culture, language and most importantly their original way of life. In spite of this, the level of loss in cultural and linguistic origins has not been common across all the displaced communities from Africa in the United States. The Gullah people have to a large extent been able to live an isolated life as compared to their other African counterparts both in terms of cultural identity and language. This paper, through review of relevant literature, tries to bring to light and how such a state of affairs came to be. In the process, the paper will trace the history of the Gullah and other slaves on their journey from Africa and how each of these two groups resettled into their new (forced) homeland. History of slave trade in the Un ited States: It was during the early fifteenth century that displacement of Africans as laborers (primarily in plantations) in the United States until import of new slaves were banned by an Act of Congress in 1808 (Curtis 298). Even so, imports were clandestinely carried out. Apart from this Whites could purchase slaves from other owners and also claim ownership of the children of slaves working for them. The 13th Amendment formally abolished slavery, even though their status as inferior continued on until the twentieth century until the arrival of such great leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. What is to be noted is that the presence of Africans as slaves and then as free people in the United States started in the 15th century and continued to this date (a period of more than five hundred years). Having virtually no connection whatsoever with their African homeland, it is only natural that this group of aliens began assimilate the culture of their adopted land and as a result began losing their original cultural and linguistic identity. The next sections will discuss the life of the average Black people as slaves and later on as free African Americans and how these factors contributed to the social losses mentioned above. It will also discuss the unique status of the Gullah tribe taking into consideration the same parameters applied to other Africans in the country. The status of the African slaves: As mentioned earlier, slaves in Africa had no means of maintaining contact with their own people in their homeland and villages. Other factors included illiteracy which was rampant and also that they were not a cohesive group in terms of language or socio-religious customs (Klein 178). Slave trade flourished because of the lack of manpower to work in American fields and later on in business and homes. Slave owners did not apparently care about this diversity as they were only intent on obtaining cheap or free labor. As a result, even if there were groups of slaves from a single village or tribe available, most slave owners did not bother to categorize them in that manner. As a result, each farm, business or household had a set of slaves that were strangers in terms of culture and language even though they came from the same continent. Klein goes on to add that this diversity of African culture present in a single place soon led to dilution of the culture of individuals and tribes. They had

Examining the Effectiveness of Starch Blockers On the Digestion of Carbohydrates :: Dieting Health Nutrition Papers

Examining the Effectiveness of Starch Blockers On the Digestion of Carbohydrates 1. Introduction Starch Blockers are all the rage in the weight loss industry. Archangel Health Store proudly announces Dr. Marshall’s Phase 'oLean it's Product of the Month (http://aomega.com/ahs/nl010298.htm) One patron claims that she lost 14 pounds in her first week of using starch blockers. Another declares, "Honey, from now on, you'll be seeing less of me." (http://quiles.home.mindspring.com/aahs/sntest.htm) If these claims are accurate, then why is America's Food and Drug Administration (FDA) working to eliminate starch blockers from the market? Why are medical test results showing that starch blockers are not only ineffective against weight loss, but are harmful to the people who ingest them? 2. Claims Manufacturers of Phase ‘oLean claim that taking their starch blockers will block most of those â€Å"empty calories† from that dinner of spaghetti and bread. This happens when the alpha-amylase inhibitor in the product stops the digestion of carbohydrates, causing the starch to pass through the digestive tract without being absorbed. Advertising emphasizes that people can heap on the potatoes and pasta and still lose weight. All the consumer has to do is take one pill 15-20 minutes before each meal. An additional pill may be taken if the meal consists of heavy starches. Weight loss can be expected to occur almost immediately after beginning use of Phase 'oLean. Consumers may take the starch blockers until they reach their desired weight, and then use them again if they need help maintaining that weight. (http://www.aomega.com/ahs/p1200b.htm) 3. How It Supposedly Works The Phase 'oLean formula is a kidney bean protein extract that is supposed to inhibit the action of alpha-amylase, which is the enzyme that they say digests starches in the bowel. Manufacturers claim that any carbohydrate that is ingested in the presence of this extract will simply pass through the system undigested and be lost as feces. Phase 'oLean supposedly absorbs only starch calories and leaves the nutrients from food to be digested normally. (http://aomega.com/ahs/p1200a.htm). Marketers claim that carbohydrates are not essential to the human diet because after they are eaten, they break up into starches and sugars, which are then used either as a quick source of energy or are stored as fat. Calories from carbohydrates should make up 40%- 60% of the average person's daily food intake.

Ecosystems: Ecological Succession and Climatic Climax

Ecosystems: Change and Challenge The Structure of Ecosystems Ecosystem: a dynamic, stable system characterised by the interaction of plants and animals with each other and with the non-living components of the environment The components of an ecosystem are categorised as either biotic and abiotic Biotic means the living environment, components include: i). Vegetation (living and decomposing) ii).Mammals, insects, birds and microorganisms Biomass-the mass of material in the bodies of animals and plants (total mass of living matter) Abiotic means the non-living, chemical and physical components of the ecosystem and includes: i). Climate- in particular the seasonal pattern of temperature and precipitation ii). Soil characteristics iii). Underlying parent rock iv). Relief of the land v). Drainage characteristicsEcosystems are open systems because energy and living matter can both enter and leave the system: * Inputs-Energy from the sun, which drives photosynthesis-enabling the plants to grow, water transported into the ecosystem from precipitation and animals that arrive from elsewhere * Outputs-nutrients are transferred out of the system by: animals can physically move out, water can leave through evapotranspiration, groundwater flow and throughflow * Flows-nutrients can be transferred from one store to another e. g. apillary uptake * Stores- stores of nutrients: vegetation, plant litter and soils Energy Flows and nutrient cycling Energy flows- is the flow of energy through a food chain * Energy flows flow through an ecosystem from one stage to another. * Through photosynthesis plants are able to capture light energy from the sun to make carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water to grow and increase their biomass * Within all ecosystems, nutrients are required for plant growth and are recycled from one store to another e. g. leaves fall from tree-> when they decompose nutrients are returned to the soilGersmehl diagram- shows the cycling of nutrients within the m ain stores of biome * Circles of proportionate size represent the stores of nutrients with the biomass, litter and soil * Nutrient transfers, inputs and outputs are represented by arrows of varying thickness Inputs- include nutrients(carbon and nitrogen) and minerals(from weathered parent rock) Outputs-loss of nutrients from the soil by; leaching and surface runoff Flows-leaf fall from biomass to litter, decomposition of litter, flow of nutrients to soil, uptake of nutrients by plants and treesThe movement of energy up the trophic levels shows the food chain as each trophic level occupies a different position. However food chains, in reality, are often more complicated than this. Some species can occupy more than one position in every food web – may be prey to more than one animal etc. Nutrient cycles in an ecosystem take place between the biotic and abiotic components of the ecosystem. This can be shown through the Gersmehl diagram. * Nutrients have three stores – the soil, litter and biomass. Nutrients are transferred through the three stores through fall of dead tissue, absorption through plant roots and decomposition etc. Inputs of nutrients include precipitation and the weathering of parent rock Outputs include loss from runoff and leaching Flows include leaf fall (from the biomass to the litter), decomposition of litter(flow of nutrients to the soil) Trophic levels, food chains and webs Energy transfer within an ecosystem, represented by a pyramid diagram * At each trophic level, some energy is available as food for the next level * Each level decreases in size, 90% of energy lost through life rocesses-respiration, movement and excretion * Only 10% available as food, number of living organisms decreases as trophic levels increase Producers/autotrophs- first layer, produce their own food through photosynthesis(green plants) Primary consumers-eat the producers(herbivores) Secondary consumers-consume the herbivores(carnivores) Tertiary consume rs-top predators that eat secondary consumers Detrivores and decomposers operate at each trophic level: i). Detrivore-feeds on dead material or waste products ii).Decomposer-an organism that breaks down dead plants, animals and waste matter e. g. fungi and bacteria * There are normally 4 links in a food chain, each link feeds on and obtains energy from the previous link and is consumed by and provides energy for the proceeding link * There are a large number of food chains that operate in ecosystems, it is also made even more complicated as animals have varied diets, this can be shown in a food web Ecosystems in the British Isles Over Time Succession and Climax Succession-a series of changes that take place in the plant community over timeClimatic climax-the final stage of the plant succession, where the vegetation is in balance with the environmental conditions. Providing the environmental conditions remain unchanged there will be no change in the vegetation once the stage is reach ed * If allowed to continue undisturbed , the succession will reach its climatic climax- where the plant species live in perfect balance with the current environmental conditions * Climate is the major influence of vegetation on a global scale * On a local scale-drainage, geology and relief affect plant growthThere are two basic types of succession: 1. Primary succession-occurs on surfaces that have had no previous vegetation There are two main types of primary succession: * Xeroseres are formed on dry land, this group can be divided into lithoseres on bare rock and psammoseres on sand dunes * Hydroseres are formed in water, haloseres in salt water and hydroseres in fresh water 2. Secondary succession occurs on land that was formerly vegetated but has undergone a loss of vegetation E. g. Deforestation Development of a successionAs the succession develops it passes through a series of stages called seres(individual stages in the plant succession) where the processes of invasion, colo nisation, competition, domination and decline operate to influence the composition of the vegetation i). Plants first invade bare ground through the processes of dispersal and migration ii). Pioneer species are adapted to surviving harsh conditions (e. g. long-rooted salt-tolerant marram grass), they compete for available space, light, water and nutrients, when they die they help modify the environment by adding organic matter iii).The addition of organic matter to the developing soil improves its structure and water retention qualities iv). A period of relative stability is eventually reached where the vegetation has reached its climax, the climax is dominated by the tallest species v). The saturation point has been reached with all potential niches occupied- climatic climax community, where the natural vegetation has reached a stable balance with the climate and soils of the area Polyclimax theory- the theory that local factors (drainage, geology, relief and microclimates) can cre ate variations in the climatic climax communityPlagioclimax- the plant community that exists when human interference prevents the climatic climax being reached Lithosere Is a succession that begins life on newly exposed rock surface e. g. eruption of a volcano i). The bare rock is initially colonised by bacteria and algae ii). The pioneers begin to colonise, starting with lichens, they begin to break down the rock and assist water retention iii). As water retention improves, mosses begin to grow, water retention improves and weathering to produce the beginning of a soil where advanced plants can grow iv).Ferns, herbs and flowering plants appear and die back, bacteria converts their remains into humus, helps to recycle nutrients and improve soil fertility v). Shrubs start to grow vi). Pioneer trees become established, normally fast growing e. g. willow, birch vii). Slower growing tree species begin to develop (e. g. ash and oak), they are the dominants of the climatic climax communit y- termperate deciduous woodland Hydrosere A hydrosere develops as follows: i). In a freshwater environment, submerged aquatics are the first plants to develop, they help to trap sediment which enables other species to move in i). The next seral stage is the growth of reed beds and swamp conditions iii). Colonisation by alder and fern begins, they further modify the environmental conditions, improving drainage and mineral content of the immature soil, allowing the entry of willow and ash iv). The climatic climax vegetation of deciduous oak or beech woodland is reached, throughout the succession there are progressive changes to the soil conditions, ground-level microclimate and animal activity Temperate Deciduous WoodlandA biome is a global-scale ecosystem and is a naturally occurring organic community of plants and animals in the climatic climax stage of succession * Tropical rainforests and temperate deciduous woodland are both examples of high energy biomes * Low energy biomes are the tundra in the high latitudes and the hot deserts in the low latitudes, the vegetation is scarce and net primary productivity is low * Temperate deciduous woodland is a high energy biome which has a relatively high productivity. It is found in id latitudes on the borders of continents where there is adequate moisture. Climate: * Temperature ranges from 5 – 17 in Winter and Summer * 500-2,000mm of rain per year, varies seasonally * Low pressure systems * Westerly winds Vegetation: * Broadleaved deciduous trees are the dominant species, oak are the tallest * Trees develop large crowns and broad but thin leaves * Shed their leaves in the winter, reduces transpiration when less water is available * Net primary production-1,200g dry organic matter per M? er year * Most woodlands show some stratification * Below the canopy is the shrub layer * Just above the forest floor is the herb layer * Epiphytes e. g. lichens and mosses grow on the trunks and branches of trees * A thick la yer of leaf litter is readily broken down by soil microbes and animals Soil: * Brown Earth soil 1. 5m deep * Leaf litter makes the soil more fertile in Autumn * Well mixed with decomposers so it becomes fertile quickly * Leaching occurs when there is snowmelt or intense rain, which is not uncommon Arresting factorsPlant successions can be stopped from reaching climatic climax or deflected to a different climax, by human interference The resulting vegetation is called a plagioclimax, this can be caused by: * deforestation or afforestation * animal grazing or trampling * fire clearance A secondary succession is one that develops on land that has previously been vegetated The stages of secondary succession may be more rapid than those of primary succession because organic matter is already present in the soil, the pioneer stage may be short or absent- climatic climax is reached in a much shorter timePlagioclimax: heather moorland 1. As the soils deteriorated without the deciduous veget ation, hardy plants such as heather come to dominate the uplands. 2. Sheep grazing became the major form of agriculture and the sheep prevented the regeneration of climax woodland by destroying young saplings 3. Many of these uplands have been controlled by managed burning to encourage new heather shoots 4. Burning has eliminated the less fire-resistant species, leading to the dominance of heather 5.One of the aims of burning heather is to ensure as much as possible of the available nutrient is conserved in the ecosystem 6. Burnt on average every 15 years, If the time elapses more then there is too much woody tissue and nutrients are lost in smoke Tropical biomes In a tropical rainforest biome due to the constant high temperature and rainfall, vegetation grows more quickly, large amounts of net primary production Biodiversity- the variety of species within an ecosystem Leaching-soluble bases are removed from a soil by downward-percolating water in environments where precipitation ex ceeds evaporationNet primary production-the amount of energy fixed in photosynthesis minus the energy lost by respiration in plants The tropical equatorial rainforest biome The tropical rainforest biomes are between latitudes 10Â °N and 10Â °S of the equator Climate * The equatorial climate has little variation, temperatures remain high throughout the year * High diurnal temperature range, high during day and low during the night- due to no insulating clouds to keep the heat in * Annual precipitation is high, often in excess of 2000mm, rain falls all ear round at the equator because of the inter-tropical convergence zone dominates the atmospheric conditions Evapotranspiration is rapid, due to sun heats the humid forest * low pressure conditions allow air to be rapidly uplifted * As the air rises it cools and water vapour condenses into clouds, the clouds continue to build into the afternoon- leading to heavy rain and thunder, returning the previously uplifted moisture back to grou nd levelHumidity is high throughout the year, continuous evapotranspiration adds water vapour to the air On the forest floor there is little breeze as the trade winds converge here Soils Underlying soil will have developed naturally over a long period of time and be in balance with its environment, this is known as zonal soil The zonal soil associated with the tropical rainforest is a latosolyh Characteristic features * A latosol can be more than 40m deep The constant hot wet climate provides perfect conditions for chemical weathering of the bedrock * Ferrallitisation is the process where bedrock is broken down by chemical weathering into clay minerals and sesquioxides * Red colour due to the presence of iron and aluminium minerals * As there is a moisture surplus in the equatorial climate(rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration), there is a downward movement of water through the soil * Silica materials are washed out of the A horizon and transported downwards by water by a process call ed leaching * Iron and aluminium compounds are less soluble and are left behind * The latosol is nutrient poor, plant uptake of nutrients is roughly equal to the input from decomposed litter * Soil moisture utilisation occurs throughout this period, as evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation Vegetation Rainforests are the most diverse and productive biome, also the most fragile The vegetation is in harmony with its environment and is a climatic climax community where the dominant species are the hardwood trees * The net primary production of the rainforest is 2,200g M? yr the figure is high because the growing season lasts all year and the litter is rapidly decomposed, replacing nutrients taken up by the vegetation * There can be up to 300 species of trees in every Km? * The forest has a layered appearance, with the tallest trees(emergent's), standing up to 45m, above the canopy, the canopy absorbs most of the sunlight and intercepts most of the precipitation * When a tre e dies it brings down others as it falls, new trees grow quickly taking advantage of the light, it decomposes quickly assisted by detrivores and the hot and humid conditions * Fungi that grows on trees and has an important role in decomposing litterThe vegetation has developed and adapted to physical conditions of the rainforest: * The trees grow rapidly, the leaves at the tops of the trees absorb light and photosynthesise, the bark is thin as the trees don't need protection from harsh winter conditions * The top layer of soil contains the minerals the trees need, there is also an abundant supply of water, roots do not need to be deep e. g. buttress roots, also help to stabilise the trees * The leaves have adapted to the regular heavy rainfall by developing drip-trips, which allows excess water to be easily shed, the leaves are also thick and leathery to withstand strong sunlight and reduces the loss of water from the plant * Epiphytes grow on the trees, as the forest floor is dark * Rainforests form the habitat for a huge number of species The effects of human activity on plant succession Deforestation is the deliberate clearance of woodland by cutting, burning or the application of a defoliant * Climatic climax vegetation has been destroyed, this has resulted in both secondary succession and plagioclimax * The vegetation that replaces the original rainforest tends to be smaller in height and less diverse, with a reduction in the general biomass Causes of deforestation * Demand for hardwood, e. g. teak, its demand for building and furniture is increasing * Many developing countries rely on export earnings from timber to help pay their debts and finance major development projects * To provide land for rubber plantations, cattle ranches for beef farming, soya plantations, mining, roads and railways * Population pressure has also led to an increase in the clearance of rainforests Impacts of deforestation * As habitats shrink, plant species become endangered and the food chain within the forest is disrupted * Some animal species are threatened by extinction The vegetation protects the latosol soils from the regular heavy tropical downpours * Once the trees are removed the topsoil is open to erosion and to leaching of nutrients and minerals * Runoff causes sediment to block river channels and increases flooding * The microclimate of the forest is disturbed by deforestation-the daily water cycle of rapid evapotranspiration followed by afternoon precipitation cannot occur, there is less cloud cover and a greater temperature range * The use of burning leads to local air pollution and contributes to climate change7 * Economic benefits in terms of income from mining, farming and exports from hardwood * Culture of the indigenous people is destroyed and they may be forced to move from their land People are one of the arresting factors that interfere with plants succession. They can often stop a plant succession from growing and then when this is ma intained it is known as a plagioclimax. Sheep grazing on moorland is an example. A secondary succession is a plant succession that takes place on land that has already been colonised.Secondary succession can follow a natural disaster such as a volcanic eruption or a period of human intervention such as colonising a former quarry site. Much of the British Isles was covered in deciduous woodland with the climax species being either Oak or Ash depending on the soil and the underlying parent rock. This was largely cleared for agriculture and settlement which has started a plagioclimax in most areas of Britain. Tropical Biome – Savannah Grassland Climate: * Wet and dry seasons * 500-1000mm of rain per year * Hot throughout the year * High pressure and strong trade winds in the dry season * Wet season dominated by the ITCZ * Fires may occur caused by heat and lightning Vegetation: Trees dominate over grasses where the wet season is longer – dense rainforest towards the equat or * Grasses may be up to 2m tall – long roots * Deciduous * Adaptations include fire resistant bark, water storage etc. Soil: * Deep red lateric soils * Influenced by climate * Silica is leached downwards in the wet season * Crust formed in the dry season Biodiversity: * Greater towards the equator * Acacia, Baobab, Umbrella Thorn, Elephant Grass * Great animal migrations occur meaning that biodiversity drops at certain times * 40% of the land in Tanzania has been designated as a National Park to help conserve biodiversity * African Elephant, Black Rhino, Zebra and Cheetah are endangered The Savanna grassland biome ClimateThe tropical wet and dry climate of Africa shows seasonal variation in wind direction, precipitation and temperature Variations occur with increasing latitude from the equator Precipitation varies: * Equatorial rainforest margins more than 1,000mm per year, rain season lasts 10-11months * Desert/semi-arid margins are less than 500mm per year, away from the equator the reliability of the rainfall decreases, only 1-2 months rainy season Temperature varies: * The equatorial rainforest margin temperature range is 22Â °C in the wet season and 28Â °C in the dry season * On the desert margins the temperature range from 18Â °C in the wet season to 34Â °C in the dry seasonDuring the dry season, the subtropical anticyclone moves over the desert margins, the subsiding air of the high pressure suppresses convection, giving rise to clear skies and high daytime temperatures The trade winds blow from the high pressure towards the ITCZ, moves towards the coast. The air has a low moisture content, known as harmatten In the wet season, the ITCZ migrates polewards, it brings rainfall because uplift and convection are fed by moist, unstable, tropical maritime air, the poles have a short rainy season so have low annual rainfall Ecological responses soil moisture budgets e. g. Northern Ghana Soil moisture recharge-July to early August precipitation bec omes greater than evapotranspiration, rainwater fills the empty pores in the soil, reaches field capacitySoil moisture surplus- August-September, at field capacity, soil is saturated, rainwater has difficulty infiltrating ground leads to surface runoff, leads to high river levels Soil moisture utilisation-October, evapotranspiration begins to exceed precipitation, more water evaporating and being transpired by plants than falling as rain Soil moisture deficit- December, when soil moisture is used up, water deficit, plants can only survive if drought resistant, period continues until precipitation becomes greater than evapotranspiration Northern Ghana characteristics: * lengthy period of moisture deficit * Short period of moisture surplus * Total annual potential evapotranspiration greater than total potential precipitationAdaptations by vegetation * Vegetation in wetter areas consist of tall coarse grasses, with many deciduous trees- Tree savanna * Shorter tussock grass becomes domi nant in desert margins, accompanied by drought-resistant trees e. g. acacia and baobab, known as grassland and shrub savannas * Trees are deciduous, have hard leathery leaves to reduce transpiration losses, other plants are microphyllous (small leaves) for the same reason * In the tree savanna, isolated trees have low umbrella shaped crowns that shade root areas and reduce soil moisture evaporation Xerophytic characteristics, adaptations to dry surroundings: * dense cell fluids hard waxy leaves Reduce water loss * thorns and protected stomata Two main types of trees: i). Acacia-has a crown structure, often flattened by trade winds, loses leaves in the dry season ii). Baobab-thick spongy trunk, long tap roots, baobab is pyrophytic, withstand fire due to insulating bark Grassland savanna- grasses are tussocky, enables them to retain some moisture shrub or scrub savanna- there are many acacia trees, thorn bushes and short tufted grasses, fewer leaves so retain more water, turn blades a way from sun to reduce water loss Impact of human activity Two main effects on the vegetation: i).Grass is burnt off, better growth of young grass next season for grazing, regular burning makes it difficult for young trees and bushes to become established, dominated by herbaceous plants and indigenous woody plants that can survive fire e. g. acacia and baobab ii). Woody plants, killed by cattle eating their foliage, thorny animal-repellent trees and shrubs such as acacia, therefore become numerous The tropical monsoon forest biome Climate * High temperatures throughout the year, small annual range(19Â °C-30Â °C) because of the location within the tropics * Annual precipitation is high * Winds blow in from the ocean with very moist air and heavy rainfall during May-October, the rest of the year the air is drierEcological responses Soil moisture budgets * Precipitation is much higher than potential evapotranspiration during the wet season * High rainfall totals result in saturation of the soil, some of the moisture can be utilised by vegetation * A soil moisture deficits occurs by January, deciduous trees lose their leaves in response to drought conditions * The period of moisture deficit is shorter then that experienced in the tropical savanna biome * The months of surplus during the wet monsoon season result in the leaching of bases and silica and very little humus is allowed to develop in the top layers Adaptations by vegetation and animals The canopy is not continuous, tallest trees are smaller, provide an incomplete cover * This means there is less competition for light, allowing greater development of vegetation at lower levels * Fewer species of trees, common species are sal, pyinkado and teak all of which are economically valuable * Trees do not possess buttress roots and they develop large round crowns * The bark is often thick, to protect them from the harsh climate of the dry season, leaves are thin * Deciduous trees shed their leaves in response to a lack of moisture, to reduce transpiration during the dry season, this allows the light to reach the forest floor, leads to the development of dense undergrowth Impact of human activity * Tropical monsoon forests are fragile ecosystems, following deforestation almost impossible for existing food webs to continue, all rophic levels are affected, results in massive decrease in natural vegetation * Removal of monsoon forests due to increasing population pressure * Deforestation due to agricultural land and fuel wood due to rapidly increasing population * Teak has been exploited for export to developed countries, many indigenous species are endangered Development issues in the three biomes Brazil has the greatest species diversity, a smaller proportion of its land is protected than in Tanzania, in Tanzania 39. 6% of the land is designated National Parkland Species diversity is of crucial importance because: * Plants photosynthesise * Trees act as a carbon sink * Some species purify wa ter, fixing nitrogen, recycling nutrients and waste * Insects pollinate cropsIn all three biomes the natural environments are threatened by population growth and economic development Ecosystem issues on a local scale Conservation-preservation of the natural environment Ecology-the study of the relationships between living things and their environment Sustainable development-The management of resources in such a way that the ability of the system to replace itself is greater than the level of exploitation In urban areas they contain a wide variety of habitats e. g. industrial sites, derelict land and parks- thus difficult to make generalisations about urban ecology- all these habitats contain different mixes of flora and faunaThis means there are opportunities for secondary succession, particularly where land becomes derelict. Urban niches Many urban habitats are specialised, within one site a number of different niches or microhabitats might be available for plants and animals to co lonise. e. g. bare tarmac, stone walls, Mosses taking root on high buildings Colonisation of wasteland Plant succession-the change on a community of species over time, is brought about by changes in the microenvironment due to e. g. supply of new species, competition between species and changes in habitat The types of plants that can initially colonise are influenced by: i). Slope- horizontal surfaces debris accumulates, eventually develops into soil ii).Moisture availability-gentle slopes, rainwater accumulates and steep slopes-faster runoffs iii). Aspect-south facing slopes are warmer and drier iv). Porosity-(ability to hold water), the greater porosity the quicker the colonisation v). Surface roughness-allowing plants to get a hold vi). Pollution levels-substances that are toxic to plants e. g. lead, contaminates the ground Succession-e. g. Industrial site Stage 1: Pioneers- * Mosses and lichens are the first plants to develop on bare surfaces * Able to exist in areas with little water, obtaining nutrients through photosynthesis * When the plants die they provide a thin mat of organic matter, produces a protosoil that other species can root into Stage 2: Oxford ragwort- Cracks in the surface provide sheltered places for seeds to germinate and retain moisture * Oxford ragwort, wind-blown seeds, has a long flowering season 180-190 days, enables it to produce millions of seeds * At this stage, succession is usually rapid Stage 3: Tall herbs- * As these plants die they produce a thicker and more nutrient-rich soil * Taller plants that are more demanding of good growth conditions can become established e. g. Willowherb Stage 4: Grassland- * As soil enrichment continues, the amount of grass in the vegetation increases * Japanese knotweed, grow up to 3m in height, their dense canopies shade out most species beneath them Stage 5: Scrub woodland- Processes of soil enrichment and competition continues, taller herbaceous plants replaced by shrubs and eventually trees * As herbaceous plants thicken it becomes difficult for these small-seeded plants to establish As plant succession develops, there are changes to the fauna: * Soil fauna-increase in number of earthworms as soil improves and increase in the number and diversity of the insect population * Sub-stratum variations-caused by differences in the nature of the surface being colonised Ecologies along route ways * Routeways are distinctive habitats because exotic species of plants and insects may be brought in by traffic, provide wildlife corridors for e. g. oxes * Railway lines- during days of steam trains there were frequent fires which burnt of tall species (allowing light through) encouraging light-demanding species to establish * Windborne seeds can be sucked along by trains and a lack of human interference encourages wildlife e. g. badgers * The nitrogen-rich exhaust fumes boost the growth of some wild flowers and increase the presence of insects and animals further up the food chain * C anals act like long ponds providing a habitat for a variety of aquatic plants e. g. ducks Introduction of new species Cities are centres for the establishment and spread of foreign species, species: * Europe-e. g. Sycamore * Japan-e. g. Japanese KnotweedSuch species can be introduced by windblown seeds, seeds carriers by animals and forms of transport e. g. trains Urban areas are attractive because of the variety of habitats, the constant creation of new habitats and the reduced level of competition Gardens and parks Are areas where the vegetation is managed: * Species are introduced from overseas and others are removed or controlled by mowing, weeding or the use of pesticides/herbicides * Sports fields reduce the diversity of plant species by maintaining grass pitches * Altruistic motives- to give a dull urban area some colour and improving the aesthetic value of the area * Improving the visual outlook-hiding eyesores (e. g. actories) encourage businesses or residents to move in * Schools produce a diverse environment for study purposes * Local businesses may want a pleasant site to attract customers * Local authorities provide the public with an arboretum * Birdwatchers wish for a diverse environment to attract new species * Act as noise and pollution inhibitors * Provide shade in hot urban environments * Reduce soil erosion on embankments Changes in the rural urban fringe * Although much of the land on the rural/urban fringe is a green belt area meaning that it’s protected from development, there will be increasing pressure to do so as plans for 50,000 houses over the next few years. The rural urban fringe is under pressure from development, In the UK are designated green belt, with regulations that strictly control new development * Farmers face problems from illegal encampments, trespassing and vandalism * Secondary succession may begin on unintended fields with the growth of weeds * Despite a lack of investment, land prices are often high, due to speculation of future development, derelict land has an advantage in gaining planning permission * Recent government policy is in favour of sustainable development of the rural-urban fringe and the recycling of derelict/degraded land e. g. planting of woodland * Country parks are relatively unmanaged and harbour more natural plant communities, providing potential breeding sites for bird species. e. g. skylark Ecological conservation areas Conservation areas are developed for: * Encouraging wildlife back into cities * Making cheap use of an otherwise derelict area Reducing maintenance costs in an area * Maintaining a diverse species base and reintroducing locally extinct species Such work includes: * Planting of trees, planting of native species, dredging of ponds and soil improvements * Group organisations behind such conservation include: The National Trust Different groups have different priorities, local authorities have planning needs and have to balance the desire to make use o f derelict land against the potential cost to local taxpayers E. g. conservation groups want to create environments where traditional species can establish and local people want a safe environment for leisure Dulwich Upper Wood conservation area This was once a wooded area and the site of Crystal Palace however now it has been turned in to an ecological conservation area which is open and attempt to accommodate everyone. * Is open at all times * Has a network of trails, some are suitable for wheelchairs Species in the wood * Trees e. g. Oak and ash, ground in the wood is deeply shaded, only a few shrubs e. g. Laurel and a few plants from the ancient woodland e. g. bluebell * Over 250 types of fungi e. g. mushrooms, they live on dead wood or leaf litter helping to break down these materials and return nutrients to the soil * Many mammals e. g. foxes and over 40 species of birds e. g. woodpeckers Why the site is interesting? Conservation of both abandoned Victorian gardens and ancient woodland * A number of preserved and re-created habitats e. g. wet areas and herb gardens * The site is both managed and allowed to grow wild in some areas, a range of different habitats * Plenty of wildlife, over 40 species of birds * Original habitats preserved, enabling native species of plants and animals to survive * A good example of how habitats can be preserved and created and still allow public access through a network of trails * The site has an educational value with a posted nature trail Ecosystem issues on a global scale Human activity, biodiversity and sustainability * World’s population continues to grow, increasing the stress upon resources and environmental systems e. g. ater, land * Population and growth and economic development resulted in spiralling demand for natural resources and reduction in natural ecosystems and biodiversity * 2005, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment- stated that humans have changed ecosystems extensively, resulting in a substantial los s of the diversity of life on Earth * 1/3 of plant species are threatened globally and that climate change could result in the extinction of up to 1 million of the world’s species by 2050 * United Nations and the World Wide Fund for Nature are working to educate people to protect ecosystems and to support sustainable development * 1997 Kyoto conference on the environment resulted in the most industrialised countries agreeing to cut their carbon dioxide emissions by 30% by 2010 * UK government created the UK biodiversity Action Plan in 1994, setting aims for the next 20 years: * Protecting the best sites for wildlife-10% of the UK designated Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI’s) * Targeting action on priority species and habitats-2007 UK diversity Partnership published list of 1,149 priority species and 65 habitats * Embedding consideration of biodiversity and ecosystem services in all sections of policy * Encouraging people to change their behaviour, to environm ental issues Management of fragile environments A fragile environment lacks resilience to a change in conditions, many ecosystems are vulnerable to change e. g. introduction of foreign species CASE STUDY: Central Amazon Conservation Complex (tropical rainforests) The destruction of the Amazon rainforest has been particularly harmful to the biodiversity there. To prevent this some places have been protected by law meaning that they are undisturbed.There are three separate reserves which are linked and is known as the Central Amazon Conservation Complex. The total size of these three areas is bigger than Switzerland. 1. Jau National Park 2,272,000 ha 2. Mamiraua Sustainable Development Reserve 260,000 ha 3. Amana Sustainable Development Reserve 2,230,000 ha This is a UNESCO world heritage site is the second largest protected area of tropical rainforest in the world. The area is sparsely populated and there are no transport links other than boats. There are no major projects such as hy droelectric dams and some incidences of hunting and poaching by outsiders for commercial gain This area has one of the most diverse flora and fauna in the world.These include: * 200+ species of mammals * 500+ species of birds e. g. parrots * 300+ species of fish * Reptiles and amphibians e. g. coral snake Some of these are endangered which means that the area requires extra protection. e. g. spider monkey and puma Management The management has three main functions: * To protect the land and to minimise the impact of human activity * To research, catalogue and protect biodiversity * To manage specific activities, such as tourism They have drawn up a zoning plan which shows how much activity has been going on in each area. 1. Primitive Zone – Minimal human intervention as this is land of great natural beauty 2.Extensive Use Zone – There has been a small amount of activity 3. Intensive Use Zone – Environment has been significantly altered due to human intervention 4. Special Use Zone – where services operate to monitor an protect the rainforest A management strategy was developed by local communities and with other representatives resulted in: * Hunting and logging for commercial gain is prohibited * Inhabitants receive environmental education and improved healthcare * Increased economic production from natural resources, ensure a sustainable future for those in the rainforest * Zoning and protection, resulted in an increase in the productivity of the forest and aquatic resourcesCASE STUDY: Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania (savanna grasslands) * The parkland occupies 2,305,100 ha, known for herds of wildebeest, 1,300,000 * Endangered species, African elephant, perhaps only 2,000 left * More than 500 species of birds e. g. flamingo * Populated by the Masai Mara, who have an extensive system of land management which requires large areas for the grazing of cattle and Mara’s cultural code forbids th e eating of wild animals, so biodiversity is protected History * Today over 52,000 Masai Mara * 1980’s, economic situation improved, tourism increased which allowed the park authorities to rebuild the infrastructure and to re-establish anti-poaching units * 90,000 visitors a year, although tourism is managed sustainably-200,000 animals are still illegally killed by poachers each year Management Buffer zones called community Wildlife Management Areas * Local people are encouraged and have legal rights to make decisions regarding the management of wildlife, hoping to curb illegal poaching * 36% of the population live below the poverty line has resulted in ever increasing pressure on existing resources * A new threat to the natural grasslands is the invasion of the non-native Mexican prickly poppy, rapidly takes over an overgrazed land crowding out native species * Tanzania is committed to protecting 42,000km? of land, UK has 1/10 of the land protected The main aim is to preserv e the country’s rich natural heritage and to provide securing breeding grounds for its flora and fauna , safe from the conflicting interests of a growing human population The Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Bangladesh (tropical monsoon forest) Population pressure in Bangladesh is severe, large areas of the forest have been cleared to provide more space for agriculture and settlement e. g. 1000 inhabit every km? Threats A number of risks threaten the Sundarbans: * Climate change- sea levels are rising at 3mm a year, cause flooding of low lying delta land * Abstraction of water-40% reduction in flow leading to increased salinity of the land and water * Deforestation-e. g. in the Himalayas leading to greater volumes of silt being deposited by rivers * 3 million people live in small villages * Fishing camps are a major disturbance in the area, with some illegal hunting and trapping of species e. g. turtles * Water pollution e. g. Khulna aquatic wildlife badly affected * Natural disas ters e. g. 2007 a cyclone killed 3,000 people and most of the larger trees were uprooted Flora and faunaThe Sundarbans consists of a vast network of rivers, mudflats and islands which are vegetated by mangroves(salt tolerant trees), act as natural buffers against storm surges and protect the land from tropical cyclones which occur during the summer monsoon season Endangered predators in this eco-region e. g. Royal Bengal tiger estimated at 350 Management * There are seven conservation areas, including three wildlife sanctuaries * Under the wildlife act of 1974 it is illegal to cultivate the land within the conservation areas or to introduce domestic animals * There is not enough staff or structures in place to enforce the law * The threats to the area require more cross border cooperation with India as well as financial support * Plans must include a high degree of local community involvement to allow sustainable use of the forest